UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

WASHINGTON, D.C. 20549

FORM 10-Q

For the quarterly period ended June 30, 2018

OR

Commission file number 001-36166

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company

(Exact name of registrant as specified in its charter)

125 High Street

Boston, MA 02110

(617) 351-5000

(Address, including zip code, and telephone number, including area code, of registrant’s principal executive offices)

Indicate by check mark whether the registrant (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.    Yes  ☒    No   ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant has submitted electronically and posted on its corporate Web site, if any, every Interactive Data File required to be submitted and posted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§ 232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the Registrant was required to submit and post such files).    Yes  ☒    No  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, smaller reporting company or an emerging growth company. See the definitions of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” “smaller reporting company,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

If an emerging growth company, indicate by check mark if the Registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act.  ☐

Indicate by check mark whether the Registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act).    Yes   ☐    No   ☒

The number of shares of common stock, par value $0.01 per share, outstanding as of July 27, 2018 was 123,553,790.

Table of Contents

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SPECIAL NOTE REGARDING FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

The statements contained herein include forward-looking statements, which involve risks and uncertainties. These forward-looking statements can be identified by the use of forward-looking terminology, including the terms “believes,” “estimates,” “projects,” “anticipates,” “expects,” “could,” “intends,” “may,” “will,” “should,” “forecast,” “intend,” “plan,” “potential,” “project,” “target” or, in each case, their negative, or other variations or comparable terminology. Forward-looking statements include all statements that are not statements of historical facts. They include statements regarding our intentions, beliefs or current expectations concerning, among other things, our results of operations; financial condition; liquidity; prospects, growth and strategies; our competitive strengths; the industry in which we operate; the impact of new accounting guidance and tax laws; expenses; effective tax rates; future liabilities; the outcome and impact of pending or threatened litigation; decisions of our customers; education expenditures; population growth; state curriculum adoptions and purchasing cycles; the impact of acquisitions and other investments; our share repurchase program; the timing, structure and expected impact of our operational efficiency and cost-reduction initiatives and the estimated savings and amounts expected to be incurred in connection therewith; and potential business decisions. We derive many of our forward-looking statements from our operating budgets and forecasts, which are based upon many detailed assumptions. We caution that it is very difficult to predict the impact of known factors, and, of course, it is impossible for us to anticipate all factors that could affect our actual results. All forward-looking statements are based upon information available to us on the date of this report.

By their nature, forward-looking statements involve risks and uncertainties because they relate to events and depend on circumstances that may or may not occur in the future. We caution you that forward-looking statements are not guarantees of future performance and that actual results may differ materially from those made in or suggested by the forward-looking statements contained herein. In addition, even if actual results are consistent with the forward-looking statements contained herein, those results or developments may not be indicative of results or developments in subsequent periods.

Important factors that could cause actual results to vary from expectations include, but are not limited to: changes in state and local education funding and/or related programs, legislation and procurement processes; changes in state academic standards; industry cycles and trends; the rate and state of technological change; state requirements related to digital instructional materials; changes in product distribution channels and concentration of retailer power; changes in our competitive environment, including free and low-cost open educational resources; periods of operating and net losses; our ability to enforce our intellectual property and proprietary rights; risks based on information technology systems and potential breaches of those systems; dependence on a small number of print and paper vendors; third-party software and technology development; possible defects in digital products; our ability to identify, complete, or achieve the expected benefits of, acquisitions; our ability to execute on our long-term growth strategy; increases in our operating costs; exposure to litigation; major disasters or other external threats; contingent liabilities; risks related to our indebtedness; future impairment charges; changes in school district payment practices; a potential increase in the portion of our sales coming from digital sales; risks related to doing business abroad; changes in tax law or interpretation; management and personnel changes; timing, higher costs and unintended consequences of our operational efficiency and cost-reduction initiatives; and other factors discussed in the “Risk Factors” section of our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2017 (and our subsequent filings pursuant to the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended). In light of these risks, uncertainties and assumptions, the forward-looking events described herein may not occur.

We undertake no obligation, and do not expect, to publicly update or publicly revise any forward-looking statement, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required by law. All subsequent written and oral forward-looking statements attributable to us or to persons acting on our behalf are expressly qualified in their entirety by the cautionary statements contained herein.

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PART 1—FINANCIAL INFORMATION

Item 1. Consolidated Financial Statements

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company

Consolidated Balance Sheets

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company

Consolidated Statements of Operations (Unaudited)

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company

Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Loss (Unaudited)

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company

Consolidated Statements of Cash Flows (Unaudited)

The accompanying notes are an integral part of these consolidated financial statements.

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Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company

Notes to Consolidated Financial Statements (Unaudited)

(in thousands of dollars, except share and per share information)

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Company (“HMH”, “Houghton Mifflin Harcourt”, “we”, “us”, “our”, or the “Company”) is a global learning company, specializing in world-class content, services and cutting edge technology solutions that enable learning in a changing landscape. We provide dynamic, engaging, and effective solutions across a variety of media and in three key focus areas: early learning, kindergarten through 12^th grade (“K-12”) and beyond the classroom, reaching over 50 million students in more than 150 countries worldwide.

The K-12 market is our primary market, and in the United States, we are a leading provider of educational content by market share. Some of our core educational offerings include HMH Science Dimensions, Collections, GO Math!, Read 180 Universal, and Journeys. We believe our long-standing reputation and trusted brand enable us to capitalize on trends in the education market through our existing and developing channels.

Furthermore, for nearly two centuries, we have published renowned and awarded children’s, fiction, nonfiction, culinary and reference titles enjoyed by readers throughout the world. Our distinguished author list includes ten Nobel Prize winners, forty-eight Pulitzer Prize winners, and fifteen National Book Award winners. We are home to popular characters and titles such as Curious George, Carmen Sandiego, The Lord of the Rings, The Whole30, The Best American Series, the Peterson Field Guides, CliffsNotes, and The Polar Express, and published distinguished authors such as Philip Roth, Temple Grandin, Tim O’Brien, Amos Oz, Kwame Alexander, Lois Lowry, and Chris Van Allsburg.

We sell our products and services across multiple media and distribution channels. Leveraging our portfolio of content, including some of our best-known children’s brands and titles, such as Carmen Sandiego and Curious George, we have created interactive digital content, mobile applications and educational games that can be used by families at home or on the go.

Our digital products portfolio, combined with our content development or distribution agreements with recognized technology leaders such as Apple, Google, Intel and Microsoft, enable us to bring our next-generation educational solutions and content to learners across virtually all platforms and devices. Additionally, we believe our technology and development capabilities allow us to enhance content engagement and effectiveness with embedded assessment, interactivity and personalized adaptable content as well as increased accessibility.

The June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017 consolidated financial statements of HMH include the accounts of all of our wholly-owned subsidiaries as of, and for the three and six month periods ended June 30, 2018 and 2017.

The accompanying unaudited consolidated financial statements have been prepared in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the United States of America (“GAAP”) for interim financial information. Accordingly, they do not include all of the information and footnotes required by GAAP for complete financial statements. Certain information and footnote disclosures normally included in our annual financial statements prepared in accordance with GAAP have been condensed or omitted consistent with Article 10 of Regulation S-X. In the opinion of management, our unaudited consolidated financial statements and accompanying notes include all adjustments (consisting of normal recurring adjustments) considered necessary by management to fairly state the results of operations, financial position and cash flows for the interim periods presented. Interim results of operations are not necessarily indicative of the results for the full year or for any future period. These financial statements should be read in conjunction with the annual financial statements and the notes thereto also included therein.

During the six months ended June 30, 2017, we recorded out-of-period corrections of approximately $4.0 million increasing net sales and reducing deferred revenue that should have been recognized previously. Management believes these out-of-period corrections are not material to the current period financial statements or any previously issued financial statements.

Our business is impacted by the inherent seasonality of the academic calendar, which results in a cash flow usage in the first half of the year and a cash flow generation in the second half of the year. We expect our net cash provided by operations combined with our cash and cash equivalents and borrowing availability under our revolving credit facility to provide sufficient liquidity to fund our current obligations, capital spending, debt service requirements and working capital requirements over at least the next twelve months.

The ability of the Company to fund planned operations is based on assumptions which involve significant judgment and estimates of future revenues, capital spend and other operating costs. If necessary, management will take steps intended to improve the Company’s financial position and liquidity.

Seasonality and Comparability

Our net sales, operating profit or loss and net cash provided by or used in operations are impacted by the inherent seasonality of the academic calendar. Consequently, the performance of our businesses may not be comparable quarter to consecutive quarter and should be considered on the basis of results for the whole year or by comparing results in a quarter with results in the same quarter for the previous year.

Approximately 87% of our net sales for the year ended December 31, 2017 were derived from our Education segment, which is a markedly seasonal business. Schools conduct the majority of their purchases in the second and third quarters of the calendar year in preparation for the beginning of the school year. Thus, for the years ended December 31, 2017, 2016 and 2015, approximately 67% of our consolidated net sales were realized in the second and third quarters. Sales of K-12 instructional materials and customized testing products are also cyclical, with some years offering more sales opportunities than others in light of the state adoption calendar. The amount of funding available at the state level for educational materials also has a significant effect on year-to-year net sales. Although the loss of a single customer would not have a material adverse effect on our business, schedules of school adoptions and market acceptance of our products can materially affect year-to-year net sales performance.

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Our financial results are affected by the selection and application of accounting policies and methods. Except for the adoption of the new revenue recognition accounting standard discussed below and the adoption of the new presentation of net periodic pension cost and net periodic post-retirement benefit cost, there were no material changes in the three and six months ended June 30, 2018 to the application of significant accounting policies and estimates as described in our audited consolidated financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2017.

Adoption of New Revenue Recognition Accounting Standard

On January 1, 2018, we adopted the new revenue standard utilizing the modified retrospective method. As a result, we changed our accounting policy for revenue recognition as detailed below. We recognized the cumulative effect of initially applying the new revenue standard as an adjustment to the opening balance of accumulated deficit. Using the modified retrospective approach, we applied the standard only to contracts that were not completed at the date of initial application. The comparative information has not been restated and continues to be reported under the accounting standards in effect for those periods as we believe it is still comparable.

There was a significant impact relating to the requirement to capitalize incremental costs to acquire new contracts, which consist of sales commissions. During previous periods, these costs were expensed as incurred. Further, there is an impact to our accounting for software license revenue. Under the previous guidance, when vendor specific objective evidence (“VSOE”) was not established for undelivered maintenance services, software licenses were recognized ratably over the life of the service period due to the separation criteria of the software license and related maintenance services not being met. The requirement for establishing VSOE does not exist under the new standard, thus software licenses are no longer recognized over the maintenance term, but rather as the software licenses are delivered as fair value can be established to allow for separate recognition.

The cumulative effect of the changes made to our consolidated balance sheets at January 1, 2018 were as follows:

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Impact of New Revenue Recognition Accounting Standard on Financial Statement Line Items

In accordance with the new revenue standard requirements, the disclosure of the impact of adoption on our consolidated balance sheets, statements of operations and cash flows were as follows:

The adoption resulted in offsetting shifts in cash flows through net loss within cash flows from operating activities for deferred commissions, which are included within other assets, and deferred revenue consistent with the effects on our consolidated statements of operations as noted in the table above. The adoption had no impact on our overall cash flows from operating, investing or financing activities.

Revenue Recognition

We derive revenue primarily from the sale of print and digital content and instructional materials, trade books, reference materials, assessment materials and multimedia instructional programs; license fees for book rights, content and software; and services that include test development, test delivery, test scoring, professional development, consulting and training as well as access to hosted interactive content. Revenue is recognized when a customer obtains control of promised goods or services, in an amount that reflects the consideration which we expect to receive in exchange for those goods or services. To determine revenue recognition for arrangements that we determine are within the scope of the new revenue recognition accounting

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standard, we perform the following five steps: (i) identify the contract with a customer; (ii) identify the performance obligations in the contract; (iii) determine the transaction price; (iv) allocate the transaction price to the performance obligations in the contract; and (v) recognize revenue when (or as) we satisfy a performance obligation. We only apply the five-step model to contracts when it is probable that we will collect the consideration we are entitled to in exchange for the goods or services transferred to the customer. At contract inception, we assess the goods or services promised within each contract to determine those that represent performance obligations, and assess whether each promised good or service is distinct. We then recognize as revenue the amount of the transaction price that is allocated to the respective performance obligation when (or as) the performance obligation is satisfied.

Revenue is measured as the amount of consideration we expect to receive in exchange for transferring products or services to a customer. To the extent the transaction price includes variable consideration, which generally reflects estimated future product returns, we estimate the amount of variable consideration that should be included in the transaction price utilizing the expected value method to which we expect to be entitled. Variable consideration is included in the transaction price if, in our judgment, it is probable that a significant future reversal of cumulative revenue under the contract will not occur. Estimates of variable consideration and the determination of whether to include estimated amounts in the transaction price are based largely on all information (historical, current and forecasted) that is reasonably available. Sales, value add, and other taxes collected on behalf of third parties are excluded from revenue.

We estimate the collectability of contracts upon execution. As products are shipped with right of return, the transaction price allocated is adjusted to reflect the estimated returns for the arrangement on these sales and is made at the time of sale based on historical experience by product line or customer.

Shipping and handling fees charged to customers are included in net sales.

When determining the transaction price of a contract, an adjustment is made if payment from a customer occurs either significantly before or significantly after performance, resulting in a significant financing component. We do not assess whether a significant financing component exists if the period between when we perform our obligations under the contract and when the customer pays is one year or less. Significant financing components included within our contracts were not material as of June 30, 2018.

Contracts are often modified to account for changes in contract specifications and requirements. Contract modifications exist when the modification either creates new, or changes the existing, enforceable rights and obligations. Generally, contract modifications are for products or services that are not distinct from the existing contract due to the inability to use, consume or sell the products or services on their own to generate economic benefits and are accounted for as if they were part of that existing contract. The effect of such a contract modification on the transaction price and measure of progress for the performance obligation to which it relates is recognized as an adjustment to revenue (either as an increase in or a reduction of revenue) on a cumulative catch-up basis.

Physical product revenue is generally recognized when the customer obtains control of our product, which occurs at a point in time, and may be upon shipment or upon delivery based on the contractual shipping terms of a contract. Revenues from static digital content commence upon delivery to the customer of the digital entitlement that is required to access and download the content and is typically recognized at a point in time. Revenues from subscription software licenses, related hosting services and product support are recognized evenly over the license term as we believe this best represents the pattern of transfer to the customer. The perpetual software licenses provide the customer with a functional license to our products and their related revenues are recognized when the customer receives entitlement to the software. For the technical services provided to customers in connection with the software license, including hosting services related to perpetual licenses, we are applying the practical expedient and are recognizing revenue in the amount we have the right to invoice as that amount corresponds directly with the value to the customer of our performance completed. As the invoices are based on each day of service, this is directly linked to the transfer of benefit to the customer.

If the contract contains a single performance obligation, the entire transaction price is allocated to the single performance obligation. We enter into certain contracts that have multiple performance obligations, one or more of which may be delivered subsequent to the delivery of other performance obligations. These performance obligations may include print and digital media, professional development services, training, software licenses, access to hosted content, and various services related to the software including but not limited to hosting, maintenance and support, and implementation. We allocate the transaction price based on the estimated relative standalone selling prices of the promised products or services underlying each performance obligation. We determine standalone selling prices based on the price at which the performance obligation is sold separately. If the standalone selling price is not observable through past transactions, we estimate the standalone selling price taking into account available information such as market conditions and internally approved pricing guidelines related to the performance obligations. Generally, our performance obligations include print and digital textbooks and instructional materials, trade books, reference materials, assessment materials and multimedia instructional programs; licenses to book rights and content; access to hosted content; and services including test development, test delivery, test scoring, professional development, consulting and training. Software performance obligations include perpetual and subscription based or SaaS software licenses, software maintenance and support services, professional services and training when those services relate to software performance obligations.

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Accounts Receivable

Accounts receivable include amounts billed and currently due from customers and are recorded net of allowances for doubtful accounts and reserves for returns. In the normal course of business, we extend credit to customers that satisfy predefined criteria. Allowances for doubtful accounts are established through the evaluation of accounts receivable aging and prior collection experience to estimate the ultimate collectability of these receivables. The transaction prices allocated are adjusted to reflect expected returns and are based on historical return rates and sales patterns.

Contract Assets

Contract assets include unbilled amounts, primarily for service arrangements, where revenue is recognized over time as the services are delivered to the customer and revenue recognized exceeds the amount billed to the customer, and right of payment is not subject to the passage of time. Amounts may not exceed their net realizable value. Contract assets are included in prepaid expenses and other assets on our consolidated balance sheets.

Deferred Commissions

Our incremental direct costs of obtaining a contract, which consist of sales commissions, are deferred and amortized over the period of contract performance. Applying the practical expedient, we recognize sales commission expense when incurred if the amortization period of the assets that we otherwise would have recognized is one year or less. At June 30, 2018 and January 1, 2018, we had $22.6 million and $24.0 million of deferred commissions, respectively. We had $3.2 million and $4.3 million of amortization expense related to deferred commissions during the three and six months ended June 30, 2018, respectively. These costs are included in selling and administrative expenses.

Deferred Revenue

Our contract liabilities consist of advance payments and billings in excess of revenue recognized and are classified as deferred revenue on our consolidated balance sheets. Our contract assets and liabilities are accounted for and presented on a net basis as either a contract asset or contract liability at the end of each reporting period. We classify deferred revenue as current or noncurrent based on the timing of when we expect to recognize revenue. In order to determine revenue recognized in the period from contract liabilities, we first allocate revenue to the individual contract liability balance outstanding at the beginning of the period until the revenue exceeds that balance. If additional advances are received on those contracts in subsequent periods, we assume all revenue recognized in the reporting period first applies to the beginning contract liability as opposed to a portion applying to the new advances for the period.

Recent accounting pronouncements, not included below, are not expected to have a material impact on our consolidated financial position and results of operations.

Recently Issued Accounting Standards

In March 2018, the Financial Accounting Standards Board (“FASB”) issued a new accounting standard to incorporate Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 118 (“SAB 118”), which addresses the accounting implications of the major tax reform legislation commonly referred to as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (“2017 Tax Act”), as enacted on December 22, 2017. SAB 118 allows a company to record provisional amounts during a measurement period not to extend beyond one year of the enactment date and was effective upon issuance. We continue to analyze the 2017 Tax Act, and in certain areas, have made preliminary reasonable estimates of the effects on our consolidated financial statements and tax disclosures.

In January 2017, the FASB issued updated guidance to simplify the test for goodwill impairment by the elimination of Step 2 in the determination on whether goodwill should be considered impaired. The annual assessments are still required to be completed. The guidance will be effective in 2020, with early adoption permitted. We do not expect that the adoption of this guidance will have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

In February 2016, the FASB issued guidance that primarily requires lessees to recognize most leases on their balance sheets but record expenses on their income statements in a manner similar to current accounting. For lessors, the guidance modifies the classification criteria and the accounting for sales-type and direct financing leases. The guidance is effective in 2019 with early adoption permitted. We are currently in the process of evaluating the impact of this guidance on our consolidated financial statements and footnote disclosures, but we believe the adoption of this guidance will have a material impact on our consolidated balance sheets due to the recognition of the lease rights and obligations related to our office space leases (approximately $370.0 million at December 31, 2017) as assets and liabilities.

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Recently Adopted Accounting Standards

In May 2014, the FASB issued new guidance related to revenue recognition. This new accounting standard replaced most current U.S. GAAP guidance on this topic and eliminated most industry-specific guidance. The new revenue recognition standard provides a unified model to determine when and how revenue is recognized. The core principle is that an entity should recognize revenue to depict the transfer of promised goods or services to customers in an amount that reflects the consideration for which the entity expects to be entitled in exchange for those goods or services. Entities may adopt the new standard either retrospectively to all periods presented in the financial statements (the full retrospective method) or as a cumulative-effect adjustment as of the date of adoption (modified retrospective method) in the year of adoption without applying to comparative periods financial statements. We adopted the guidance on January 1, 2018 applying the modified retrospective method.

The new standard superseded substantially all existing revenue recognition guidance. It impacts the revenue recognition for a significant number of our contracts, in addition to our business processes and our information technology systems. As a result, we established a cross-functional coordinated team to implement the new revenue recognition standard. We have implemented changes to our systems, processes and internal controls to meet the standard’s reporting and disclosure requirements.

Refer to Note 2 for a detailed description of the impact of the adoption of the revenue standard.

In March 2017, the FASB issued guidance to improve the presentation of net periodic pension cost and net periodic post-retirement benefit cost. The changes to the guidance required employers to report the service cost component in the same line item as other compensation costs arising from services rendered by employees during the reporting period. The other components of net benefit costs have been presented in the income statement separately from the service cost and outside of a subtotal of income from operations. The guidance became effective January 1, 2018 and the adoption of the guidance did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

In November 2016, the FASB issued guidance on restricted cash, which required amounts generally described as restricted cash and restricted cash equivalents be included with cash and cash equivalents when reconciling the total beginning and ending amounts for the periods shown on the statement of cash flows. The guidance became effective January 1, 2018 using a retrospective transition method to each period presented. The adoption of the guidance did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

In August 2016, the FASB issued a guidance update to classifications of certain cash receipts and cash payments on the Statement of Cash Flows with the objective of reducing the existing diversity in practice. This updated guidance addresses the following eight specific cash flow issues: debt prepayment or debt extinguishment costs; settlement of zero-coupon debt instruments or other debt instruments with coupon interest rates that are insignificant in relation to the effective interest rate of the borrowing; contingent consideration payments made after a business combination; proceeds from the settlement of insurance claims; proceeds from the settlement of corporate-owned life insurance policies (including bank-owned life insurance policies); distributions received from equity method investees; beneficial interests in securitization transactions; and separately identifiable cash flows and application of the predominance principle. The guidance became effective January 1, 2018 and the adoption of the guidance did not have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements.

In March 2016, the FASB issued guidance that changes the accounting for certain aspects of share-based payments to employees. The guidance requires the recognition of the income tax effects of awards in the income statement when the awards vest or are settled, thus eliminating additional paid-in capital pools. The guidance also allows for the employer to repurchase more of an employee’s shares for tax withholding purposes without triggering liability accounting. In addition, the guidance allows for a policy election to account for forfeitures as they occur rather than on an estimated basis. The guidance became effective January 1, 2017. The adoption of the guidance resulted in the recognition of approximately $12.3 million (tax effected) of previously unrecorded additional paid-in capital net operating losses as of January 1, 2017. The additional net operating losses were offset by an increase to the valuation allowance, accordingly no income tax benefit was recognized as a result of the adoption.

Inventories consisted of the following:

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Contract assets consist of unbilled amounts at the reporting date and are transferred to accounts receivable when the rights become unconditional. Contract assets are included in prepaid expenses and other assets on our consolidated balance sheets. Contract liabilities consist of deferred revenue (current and long-term). The following table presents changes in contract assets and contract liabilities during the six months ended June 30, 2018:

The $21.3 million decrease in our net contract liabilities from January 1, 2018 to June 30, 2018 was due to a $24.4 million decrease in our contract liabilities, primarily due to satisfaction of performance obligations related to physical and digital products during the period.

During the three and six months ended June 30, 2018, we recognized the following net sales as a result of changes in the contract asset and contract liabilities balances:

As of June 30, 2018, the aggregate amount of the transaction price allocated to the remaining performance obligations was $741.2 million, and we will recognize approximately 77% over the next 1 to 3 years to net sales.

Prior to the adoption of the new revenue standard, we expensed incremental commissions paid to sales representatives for obtaining product sales as well as service contracts. We expect that the costs are recoverable, and under the new standard, we capitalize these incremental costs of obtaining customer contracts unless the capitalization and amortization of such costs are not expected to have a material impact on the financial statements. Applying the practical expedient, we recognize sales commission expense when incurred if the amortization period of the assets that we otherwise would have recognized is one year or less. We had deferred commissions in the amount of $22.6 million at June 30, 2018 and amortized $3.2 million and $4.3 million during the three and six months ended June 30, 2018, respectively. The amortization is included in selling and administrative expenses.

Goodwill and other intangible assets consisted of the following:

There were no changes in the carrying amount of goodwill for the six months ended June 30, 2018.

Amortization expense for definite-lived trademarks and tradenames, publishing rights and customer related and other intangibles were $32.5 million and $40.5 million for the six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, respectively.

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Our debt consisted of the following:

Term Loan Facility

On May 29, 2015, we entered into an amended and restated $800 million term loan credit facility (the “term loan facility”) .. The term loan facility matures on May 29, 2021 and the interest rate is based on LIBOR plus 3.0% or an alternative base rate plus applicable margins. LIBOR is subject to a floor of 1.0%, with the length of the LIBOR contracts ranging up to six months at the option of the Company.

The term loan facility may be prepaid, in whole or in part, at any time, without premium. The term loan facility is required to be repaid in quarterly installments of $2.0 million.

The term loan facility was issued at a discount equal to 0.5% of the outstanding borrowing commitment. As of June 30, 2018, the interest rate of the term loan facility was 5.1%.

The term loan facility does not require us to comply with financial maintenance covenants. We are currently required to meet certain incurrence based financial covenants as defined under our term loan facility. The term loan facility is subject to usual and customary conditions, representations, warranties and covenants, including restrictions on additional indebtedness, liens, investments, mergers, acquisitions, asset dispositions, dividends to stockholders, repurchase or redemption of our stock, transactions with affiliates and other matters. The term loan facility is subject to customary events of default. If an event of default occurs and is continuing, the administrative agent may, or at the request of certain required lenders shall, accelerate the obligations outstanding under the term loan facility.

We are subject to an excess cash flow provision under our term loan facility which is predicated upon our leverage ratio and cash flow. There was no payment required under the excess cash flow provision in 2018 and 2017.

Interest Rate Hedging

On August 17, 2015, we entered into interest rate derivative contracts with various financial institutions having an aggregate notional amount of $400.0 million to convert floating rate debt into fixed rate debt and had $400.0 million outstanding as of June 30, 2018. We assessed at inception, and re-assess on an ongoing basis, whether the interest rate derivative contracts are highly effective in offsetting changes in the fair value of the hedged variable rate debt.

These interest rate swaps were designated as cash flow hedges and qualify for hedge accounting under the accounting guidance related to derivatives and hedging. Accordingly, we recorded an unrealized gain of $5.1 million and $0.9 million in our statements of comprehensive loss to account for the changes in fair value of these derivatives during the six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, respectively. The corresponding $3.9 million hedge asset and $1.2 million hedge liability is included within other assets and other liabilities (long-term), respectively, in our consolidated balance sheets as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively. The interest rate derivative contracts mature on July 22, 2020.

Revolving Credit Facility

On July 22, 2015, we entered into an amended and restated revolving credit facility (the “revolving credit facility”). The revolving credit facility provides borrowing availability in an amount equal to the lesser of either $250.0 million or a borrowing base that is computed monthly or weekly and comprised of the borrowers’ and the guarantors’ eligible inventory and receivables. The revolving credit facility includes a letter of credit subfacility of $50.0 million, a swingline subfacility of $20.0 million and the option to expand the facility by up to $100.0 million in the aggregate under certain specified conditions. The revolving credit facility may be prepaid, in whole or in part, at any time, without premium.

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The revolving credit facility requires the Company to maintain a minimum fixed charge coverage ratio of 1.0 to 1.0 on a trailing four-quarter basis only during certain periods commencing when excess availability under the revolving credit facility is less than certain limits prescribed by the terms of the revolving credit facility. The revolving credit facility is subject to usual and customary conditions, representations, warranties and covenants, including restrictions on additional indebtedness, liens, investments, mergers, acquisitions, asset dispositions, dividends to stockholders, repurchase or redemption of our stock, transactions with affiliates and other matters. The revolving credit facility is subject to customary events of default. As of June 30, 2018, $50.0 million has been drawn on the revolving credit facility.

As of June 30, 2018, the minimum fixed charge coverage ratio covenant under our revolving credit facility was not applicable, due to our level of borrowing availability. The minimum fixed charge coverage ratio, which is only tested in limited situations, is 1.0 to 1.0 through the end of the facility.

Guarantees

Under both the revolving credit facility and the term loan facility, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishers Inc., HMH Publishers LLC and Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company are the borrowers (collectively, the “Borrowers”), and Citibank, N.A. acts as both the administrative agent and the collateral agent.

The obligations under the revolving credit facility and the term loan facility are guaranteed by the Company and each of its direct and indirect for-profit domestic subsidiaries (other than the Borrowers) (collectively, the “Guarantors”) and are secured by all capital stock and other equity interests of the Borrowers and the Guarantors and substantially all of the other tangible and intangible assets of the Borrowers and the Guarantors, including, without limitation, receivables, inventory, equipment, contract rights, securities, patents, trademarks, other intellectual property, cash, bank accounts and securities accounts and owned real estate. The revolving credit facility is secured by first priority liens on receivables, inventory, deposit accounts, securities accounts, instruments, chattel paper and other assets related to the foregoing (the “Revolving First Lien Collateral”), and second priority liens on the collateral which secures the term loan facility on a first priority basis. The term loan facility is secured by first priority liens on the capital stock and other equity interests of the Borrowers and the Guarantors, equipment, owned real estate, trademarks and other intellectual property, general intangibles that are not Revolving First Lien Collateral and other assets related to the foregoing, and second priority liens on the Revolving First Lien Collateral.

2017 Restructuring Plan

On an ongoing basis, we assess opportunities for improved operational effectiveness and efficiency and better alignment of expenses with net sales, while preserving our ability to make the investments in content and our people that we believe are important to our long-term success. As a result of these assessments, we have undertaken a restructuring initiative in order to enhance our growth potential and better position us for long-term success. This initiative is described below.

Beginning at the end of 2016, we worked with a third party consultant to review our operating model and organizational design in order to improve our operational efficiency, better focus on the needs of our customers and right-size our cost structure to create long-term shareholder value.

In March 2017, we committed to certain operational efficiency and cost-reduction actions we planned to take in order to accomplish these objectives (“2017 Restructuring Plan”). These actions include making organizational design changes across layers of the Company below the executive team and other right-sizing initiatives expected to result in reductions in force, consolidating and/or subletting certain office space under real estate leases as well as other potential operational efficiency and cost-reduction initiatives. We have completed the organizational design change actions in 2017 and expect to substantially complete the remaining actions by the end of 2018.

Implementation of actions under the 2017 Restructuring Plan is expected to result in total charges of approximately $45.0 million to $49.0 million, of which approximately $35.0 million to $39.0 million of these charges are estimated to result in future cash outlays. We have recorded cash-related costs of $23.3 million and $27.2 million for the three and six months ended June 30, 2017, respectively, of which a portion of these expenses totaling approximately $14.0 million and $14.2 million were related to severance and termination benefits for the three and six months ended June 30, 2017, respectively, with the remaining amount of approximately $9.3 million and $13.0 million related to implementation of the plan and real estate consolidation costs, respectively. These costs are included in the restructuring line item within our consolidated statements of operations.

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The following tables provide a summary of our total costs associated with the 2017 Restructuring Plan, included in the restructuring line item within our consolidated statements of operations, for the three and six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017 by major type of cost:

Our restructuring liabilities are primarily comprised of accruals for severance and termination benefits and office space consolidation. The following is a rollforward of our liabilities associated with the 2017 Restructuring Plan:

The following table provides a summary of our estimates of costs associated with the 2017 Restructuring Plan through the end of 2018 by major type of cost:

Severance and Other Charges

2018

Exclusive of the 2017 Restructuring Plan, during the six months ended June 30, 2018, $2.9 million of severance payments were made to employees whose employment ended in 2018 and prior years and $0.5 million of net payments were made for office space no longer utilized by the Company as a result of prior savings initiatives. Further, we recorded an expense in the amount of $6.1 million to reflect costs for severance, which we expect to be paid over the next twelve months, along with a favorable $0.1 million adjustment for office space no longer occupied.

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2017

Exclusive of the 2017 Restructuring Plan, during the six months ended June 30, 2017, $4.4 million of severance payments were made to employees whose employment ended in 2017 and prior years and $3.0 million of net payments were made for office space no longer utilized by the Company. Further, we recorded an expense in the amount of $1.1 million to reflect costs for severance related to cost savings, which have been fully paid, along with a $0.4 million charge for office space no longer occupied.

A summary of the significant components of the severance/restructuring and other charges, which are not allocated to our segments and included in Corporate and Other, is as follows:

The current portion of the severance and other charges was $6.8 million and $6.9 million (inclusive of the 2017 Restructuring Plan) as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively.

The computation of the annual estimated effective tax rate at each interim period requires certain estimates and significant judgment, including, but not limited to, the expected operating income for the year, projections of the proportion of income earned and taxed in various jurisdictions, permanent and temporary differences and the likelihood of recovering deferred tax assets generated in the current year. The accounting estimates used to compute the provision for income taxes may change as new events occur, more experience is acquired, additional information is obtained or as the tax environment changes.

At the end of each interim period, we estimate the annual effective tax rate and apply that rate to our ordinary quarterly earnings. The amount of interim tax benefit recorded for the year-to-date ordinary loss is limited to the amount that is expected to be realized during the year or recognizable as a deferred tax asset at year end. The tax expense or benefit related to significant, unusual or extraordinary items that will be separately reported or reported net of their related tax effect, are individually computed, and are recognized in the interim period in which those items occur. In addition, the effect of changes in enacted tax laws or rates or tax status is recognized in the interim period in which the change occurs.

During the three and six months ended June 30, 2018, we continued to perform analysis and evaluate interpretations and other guidance regarding the 2017 Tax Act, but did not record any adjustments to the amounts recorded on a provisional basis in the year ended December 31, 2017 or deem any such amounts as complete.

For the three months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, we recorded income tax expense of approximately $2.2 million and $6.1 million, respectively, and for the six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, we recorded income tax expense of approximately $6.9 million and $20.5 million, respectively. The decrease in income tax expense for the six months ended June 30, 2018 of $13.6 million is primarily related to the 2017 Tax Act resulting in a lower annual effective tax rate and our ability to utilize indefinite-lived deferred tax liabilities as a source of future taxable income in our assessment of realization of deferred tax assets. For all periods, the income tax expense was impacted by certain discrete tax items, including the accrual of potential interest and penalties on uncertain tax positions. Including the tax effects of these discrete tax items, the effective rate was (10.4)% and (15.0)% for the three months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, respectively, and (5.9)% and (14.0)% for the six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, respectively.

Reserves for unrecognized tax benefits, excluding accrued interest and penalties, were $15.7 million at both June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017.

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We have a noncontributory, qualified defined benefit pension plan (the “Retirement Plan”), which covers certain employees. The Retirement Plan is a cash balance plan, which accrues benefits based on pay, length of service, and interest. The funding policy is to contribute amounts subject to minimum funding standards set forth by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 and the Internal Revenue Code. The Retirement Plan’s assets consist principally of common stocks, fixed income securities, investments in registered investment companies, and cash and cash equivalents. We also have a nonqualified defined benefit plan, or nonqualified plan, that previously covered employees who earned over the qualified pay limit as determined by the Internal Revenue Service. The nonqualified plan accrues benefits for the participants based on the cash balance plan calculation. The nonqualified plan is not funded. We use a December 31 date to measure the pension and postretirement liabilities. In 2007, both the qualified and nonqualified pension plans eliminated participation in the plans for new employees hired after October 31, 2007.

We recognize the funded status of defined benefit pension and other postretirement plans as an asset or liability in the balance sheet and recognize actuarial gains and losses and prior service costs and credits in other comprehensive income (loss) and subsequently amortize those items in the statement of operations.

Net periodic benefit (credit) cost for our pension and other postretirement benefit plans consisted of the following:

There were no contributions to the pension plans for the six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017, and we do not expect to make a contribution to the pension plans during 2018.

The accounting standard for fair value measurements, among other things, defines fair value, establishes a consistent framework for measuring fair value and expands disclosure for each major asset and liability category measured at fair value on either a recurring or nonrecurring basis. The accounting standard establishes a three-tier fair value hierarchy which prioritizes the inputs used in measuring fair value as follows:

Assets and liabilities measured at fair value are based on one or more of three valuation techniques identified in the tables below. Where more than one technique is noted, individual assets or liabilities were valued using one or more of the noted techniques. The valuation techniques are as follows:

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On a recurring basis, we measure certain financial assets and liabilities at fair value, including our money market funds, short-term investments which consist of U.S. treasury securities and U.S. agency securities, foreign exchange forward contracts, and interest rate derivatives contracts. The accounting standard for fair value measurements defines fair value as the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date. As such, fair value is a market-based measurement that should be determined based on assumptions that market participants would use in pricing an asset or liability. In determining fair value, we utilize valuation techniques that maximize the use of observable inputs and minimize the use of unobservable inputs to the extent possible as well as consider counterparty and its credit risk in its assessment of fair value.

Financial Assets and Liabilities

The following tables present our financial assets and liabilities measured at fair value on a recurring basis:

Our money market funds and U.S. treasury securities are classified within Level 1 of the fair value hierarchy because they are valued using quoted prices in active markets for identical instruments. Our U.S. agency securities are classified within Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy because they are valued using other than quoted prices in active markets. In addition to $22.5 million and $115.5 million invested in money market funds as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively, we had $8.2 million and $33.5 million of cash invested in bank accounts as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively.

Our foreign exchange derivatives consist of forward contracts and are classified within Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy because they are valued based on observable inputs and are available for substantially the full term of our derivative instruments. We use foreign exchange forward contracts to fix the functional currency value of forecasted commitments, payments and receipts. The aggregate notional amount of the outstanding foreign exchange forward contracts was $16.1 million and $15.8 million at June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively. Our foreign exchange forward contracts contain netting provisions to mitigate credit risk in the event of counterparty default, including payment default and cross default. At June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, the fair value of our counterparty default exposure was less than $1.0 million and spread across several highly rated counterparties.

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Our interest rate derivatives are classified within Level 2 of the fair value hierarchy because they are valued based on observable inputs and are available for substantially the full term of our derivative instruments. Our interest rate risk relates primarily to U.S. dollar borrowings, partially offset by U.S. dollar cash investments. We have historically used interest rate derivative instruments to manage our earnings and cash flow exposure to changes in interest rates by converting floating-rate debt into fixed-rate debt. The aggregate notional amount of the outstanding interest rate derivative instruments was $400.0 million as of June 30, 2018.

We designate these derivative instruments either as fair value or cash flow hedges under the accounting guidance related to derivatives and hedging. We record changes in the value of fair value hedges in interest expense, which is generally offset by changes in the fair value of the hedged debt obligation. Interest payments made or received related to our interest rate derivative instruments are included in interest expense. We record the effective portion of any change in the fair value of derivative instruments designated as cash flow hedges as unrealized gains or losses in other comprehensive income (loss), net of tax, until the hedged cash flow occurs, at which point the effective portion of any gain or loss is reclassified to earnings. In the event the hedged cash flow does not occur, or it becomes no longer probable that it will occur, we reclassify the amount of any gain or loss on the related cash flow hedge to interest expense at that time.

We believe we do not have significant concentrations of credit risk arising from our interest rate derivative instruments, whether from an individual counterparty or a related group of counterparties. We manage the concentration of counterparty credit risk on our interest rate derivatives instruments by limiting acceptable counterparties to a diversified group of major financial institutions with investment grade credit ratings, limiting the amount of credit exposure to each counterparty, and actively monitoring their credit ratings and outstanding fair values on an ongoing basis. Furthermore, none of our derivative transactions contain provisions that are dependent on our credit ratings from any credit rating agency.

We also employ master netting arrangements that reduce our counterparty payment settlement risk on any given maturity date to the net amount of any receipts or payments due between us and the counterparty financial institution. Thus, the maximum loss due to counterparty credit risk is limited to the unrealized gains in such contracts net of any unrealized losses should any of these counterparties fail to perform as contracted. Although these protections do not eliminate concentrations of credit risk, as a result of the above considerations, we do not consider the risk of counterparty default to be significant.

Non-Financial Assets and Liabilities

Our non-financial assets, which include goodwill, other intangible assets, property, plant, and equipment, and pre-publication costs, are not required to be measured at fair value on a recurring basis. However, if certain trigger events occur, or if an annual impairment test is required, we evaluate the non-financial assets for impairment. If an impairment did occur, the asset is required to be recorded at the estimated fair value. An impairment analysis was not performed for the preparation of this report, as there were no triggering events for the six months ended June 30, 2018.

During the three months ended June 30, 2017 in connection with our 2017 Restructuring Plan, we recorded an impairment charge of approximately $9.1 million related to a certain long-lived asset included within property, plant, and equipment as the carrying amount of the asset is no longer recoverable based on projected cash flows.

There were no nonfinancial liabilities that were required to be measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis during 2018 and 2017. The following table presents our nonfinancial assets measured at fair value on a nonrecurring basis during 2017:

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Fair Value of Debt

The following table presents the carrying amounts and estimated fair market values of our debt at June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017. The fair value of debt is deemed to be the amount at which the instrument could be exchanged in an orderly transaction between market participants at the measurement date.

The fair market values of our debt were estimated based on quoted market prices on a private exchange for those instruments that are traded and are classified as Level 2 within the fair value hierarchy at June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017. The fair market values require varying degrees of management judgment. The factors used to estimate these values may not be valid on any subsequent date. Accordingly, the fair market values of the debt presented may not be indicative of their future values.

There were no material changes in our commitments under contractual obligations, as disclosed in our audited consolidated financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2017.

We are involved in ordinary and routine litigation and matters incidental to our business, including claims alleging breach of contract and seeking royalty payments. Litigation alleging infringement of copyrights and other intellectual property rights is also common in the educational publishing industry. For example, there have been various settled, pending and threatened litigation that allege we exceeded the print run limitation or other restrictions in licenses granted to us to reproduce photographs in our textbooks. During 2016, we settled all such pending or actively threatened litigations alleging infringement of copyrights, and made total settlement payments of $10.0 million, collectively. We received approximately $4.5 million of insurance recovery proceeds during the first quarter of 2017.

While we may incur a loss associated with certain pending or threatened litigation, we are not able to estimate such amount, if any, but we do not expect any of these matters to have a material adverse effect on our results of operations, financial position or cash flows. We have insurance over such amounts and with coverage and deductibles as management believes is reasonable. There can be no assurance that our liability insurance will cover all events or that the limits of coverage will be sufficient to fully cover all liabilities.

In connection with an agreement with a development content provider, we agreed to act as guarantor to that party’s loan to finance such development. Such guarantee is expected to remain until 2020. Under the guarantee, we believe the maximum future payments to approximate $14.0 million. In the unlikely event that we are required to make payments on behalf of the development content provider, we would have recourse against the development content provider.

We were contingently liable for $1.3 million and $2.5 million of performance-related surety bonds for our operating activities as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, respectively. An aggregate of $25.3 million of letters of credit existed as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017, of which $0.1 million backed the aforementioned performance-related surety bonds as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017.

We routinely enter into standard indemnification provisions as part of license agreements involving use of our intellectual property. These provisions typically require us to indemnify and hold harmless licensees in connection with any infringement claim by a third party relating to the intellectual property covered by the license agreement. The assessment business routinely enters into contracts with customers that contain provisions requiring us to indemnify the customer against a broad array of potential liabilities resulting from any breach of the contract or the invalidity of the test. Although the term of these provisions and the maximum potential amounts of future payments we could be required to make is not limited, we have never incurred any costs to defend or settle claims related to these types of indemnification provisions. We therefore believe the estimated fair value of these provisions is inconsequential, and have no liabilities recorded for them as of June 30, 2018 and December 31, 2017.

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The following table sets forth the computation of basic and diluted earnings per share (“EPS”):

As we incurred a net loss in each of the periods presented above, all outstanding stock options and restricted stock units for those periods have an anti-dilutive effect and therefore are excluded from the computation of diluted weighted average shares outstanding. Accordingly, basic and diluted weighted average shares outstanding are equal for such periods.

The following table summarizes our weighted average outstanding common stock equivalents that were anti-dilutive attributable to common stockholders during the periods, and therefore excluded from the computation of diluted EPS:

Stock Repurchase Program

Our Board of Directors has authorized the repurchase of up to $1.0 billion in aggregate value of the Company’s common stock. As of June 30, 2018, there was approximately $482.0 million available for share repurchases under this authorization. The aggregate share repurchase program may be executed through December 31, 2018. Repurchases under the program may be made from time to time in the open market (including under a trading plan) or in privately negotiated transactions. The extent and timing of any such repurchases would generally be at our discretion and subject to market conditions, applicable legal requirements and other considerations. Any repurchased shares may be used for general corporate purposes. There was no share repurchase activity for the six months ended June 30, 2018 and 2017.

As of June 30, 2018, we had two reportable segments (Education and Trade Publishing). Our Education segment provides educational products, technology platforms and services to meet the diverse needs of today’s classrooms. These products and services include print and digital content in the form of textbooks, digital courseware, instructional aids, educational assessment and intervention solutions, which are aimed at improving achievement and supporting learning for students who are not keeping pace with peers, professional development and school reform services. Our Trade Publishing segment primarily develops, markets and sells consumer books in print and digital formats and licenses book rights to other publishers and electronic businesses in the United States and abroad. The principal distribution channels for Trade Publishing products are retail stores, both physical and online, and wholesalers. Reference materials are also sold to schools, colleges, libraries, office supply distributors and other businesses.

We measure and evaluate our reportable segments based on net sales and segment Adjusted EBITDA. We exclude from our segments certain corporate-related expenses, as our corporate functions do not meet the definition of a segment, as defined in the accounting guidance relating to segment reporting. In addition, certain transactions or adjustments that our Chief Operating Decision Maker considers to be non-operational, such as amounts related to goodwill and other intangible asset impairment charges, derivative instruments charges, acquisition/disposition-related activity, restructuring/integration costs, severance, separation costs and facility closures, equity compensation charges, legal settlement charges, gains or losses from divestitures, amortization and depreciation expenses, as well as interest and taxes, are excluded from segment Adjusted EBITDA. Although we exclude these amounts from segment Adjusted EBITDA, they are included in reported consolidated net loss and are included in the reconciliation below.

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The following table disaggregates our net sales by major source, which is the manner our businesses are viewed and managed:

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Reconciliation of Segment Adjusted EBITDA to the consolidated statements of operations is as follows:

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Item 2. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations

The following discussion and analysis is intended to facilitate an understanding of our results of operations and financial condition and should be read in conjunction with the interim unaudited consolidated financial statements and the related notes thereto included elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q and the audited financial statements and the related notes thereto and “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” included in our Annual Report on Form 10-K for the year ended December 31, 2017, which was filed with the Securities Exchange Commission (the “SEC”) on February 22, 2018. This “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations” contains forward-looking statements within the meaning of Section 27A of the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, and Section 21E of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended. See “Special Note Regarding Forward-Looking Statements” included elsewhere in this Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q.

Overview

We are a global learning company, specializing in education solutions across a variety of media, delivering content, services and technology to both educational institutions and consumers, and reaching over 50 million students in more than 150 countries worldwide. In the United States, we are a leading provider of K-12 educational content by market share. We believe our long-standing reputation and trusted brand enable us to capitalize on consumer and digital trends in the education market through our existing and developing channels. Furthermore, our trade and reference materials, including adult and children’s fiction and non-fiction books, have won industry awards such as the Pulitzer Prize, Newbery and Caldecott medals and National Book Award.

Key Aspects and Trends of Our Operations

Business Segments

We are organized along two business segments: Education and Trade Publishing. Our Education segment is our largest segment and represented approximately 87% of our total net sales for the year ended December 31, 2017 and 88% of our total net sales for each of the years ended December 31, 2016 and 2015. Our Trade Publishing segment represented approximately 13% of our total net sales for the year ended December 31, 2017 and 12% of our total net sales for each of the years ended December 31, 2016 and 2015. The Corporate and Other category represents certain general overhead costs not fully allocated to the business segments, such as legal, accounting, treasury, human resources and executive functions.

Net Sales

We derive revenue primarily from the sale of print and digital content and instructional materials, trade books, reference materials, multimedia instructional programs, license fees for book rights, content, software and services, test scoring, consulting and training. We primarily sell to customers in the United States. Our net sales are driven primarily as a function of volume and, to a certain extent, changes in price. Our net sales consist of our billings for products and services, less revenue that will be deferred until future recognition along with the transaction price allocation adjusted to reflect the estimated returns for the arrangement. Deferred revenues primarily derive from online interactive digital content, digital and online learning components along with undelivered work-texts, workbooks and services. The work-texts, workbooks and services are deferred until control is transferred to the customer, which often extends over the life of the contract and our hosted online and digital content is typically recognized ratably over the life of the contract. The digitalization of education content and delivery is driving a shift in the education market. As the K-12 educational market transitions to purchasing more digital, personalized education solutions, we believe our ability now or in the future to offer embedded assessments, adaptive learning, real-time interaction and student specific personalization of educational content in a platform- and device-agnostic manner will provide new opportunities for growth. An increasing number of schools are utilizing digital content in their classrooms and implementing online or blended learning environments, which is altering the historical mix of print and digital educational materials in the classroom. As a result, our business model has shifted to more digital and online learning components to address the needs of the education marketplace; thus, often resulting in an increase in our billings being deferred compared to historical levels. The level of revenues being deferred can fluctuate depending upon the mix of product offering between digital and non-digital products, the length of programs and the mix of product delivered immediately or over time.

Core curriculum programs, which represent the most significant portion of our Education segment net sales, cover curriculum standards in a particular K-12 academic subject and include a comprehensive offering of teacher and student materials required to conduct the class throughout the school year. Products and services in these programs include print and digital offerings for students and a variety of supporting materials such as teacher’s editions, formative assessments, supplemental materials, whole group instruction materials, practice aids, educational games and professional services. The process through which materials and curricula are selected and procured for classroom use varies throughout the United States. Currently, nineteen states, known as adoption states, review and approve new programs usually every six to eight years on a state-wide basis. School districts in those states typically select and purchase materials from the state-approved list. The remaining states are known as open states or open territories. In those states, materials are not reviewed at the state level, and each individual school or school district is free to procure materials at any time,

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although most follow a five-to-ten year replacement cycle. The student population in adoption states represents over 50% of the U.S. elementary and secondary school-age population. Some adoption states provide “categorical funding” for instructional materials, which means that those state funds cannot be used for any other purpose. Our core curriculum programs, primarily in adoption states, typically have higher deferred sales than other parts of the business. The higher deferred sales are primarily due to the length of time that our programs are being delivered, along with greater component and digital product offerings. A significant portion of our Education segment net sales is dependent upon our ability to maintain residual sales, which are subsequent sales after the year of the original adoption, and our ability to continue to generate new business by developing new programs that meet our customers’ evolving needs. In addition, our market is affected by changes in state curriculum standards, which drive instruction, assessment and accountability in each state. Changes in state curriculum standards require that instructional materials be revised or replaced to align to the new standards, which historically has driven demand for core curriculum programs.

We also derive our Education segment net sales from the sale of summative, cognitive and formative or in-classroom assessments to districts and schools in all 50 states. Summative assessments are concluding or “final” exams that measure students’ proficiency in a particular academic subject or group of subjects on an aggregate level or against state standards. Formative assessments are on-going, in-classroom tests that occur throughout the school year and monitor progress in certain subjects or curriculum units. Additionally, our offerings include supplemental products that target struggling learners through comprehensive intervention solutions aimed at raising student achievement by providing solutions that combine technology, content and other educational products, as well as consulting and professional development services. We also offer products targeted at assisting English language learners.

In international markets, we predominantly export and sell K-12 books to premium private schools that utilize the U.S. curriculum, which are located primarily in Asia, the Pacific, the Middle East, Latin America, the Caribbean and Africa. Our international sales team utilizes a global network of distributors in local markets around the world.

Our Trade Publishing segment sells works of fiction and non-fiction in the General Interest and Young Reader’s categories, dictionaries and other reference works. While print remains the primary format in which trade books are produced and distributed, the market for trade titles in digital format, primarily e-books, has developed over the past several years, and generally represents approximately 10% of our annual Trade Publishing net sales.

Factors affecting our net sales include:

Education